The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire from the granting of the name and title Augustus to Octavian by the Roman Senate in 27 BC onward.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the Senate) and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until the late third or early fourth century.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The modern word "emperor" derives from the title imperator, that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. For example, Augustus's official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied much of Europe and portions of North Africa and the Middle East. Under the republic, the Senate and People of Rome authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The chief magistrates of the republic were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
After the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the title "dominus noster" (our lord). The rise of powerful barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-augustus in 286. In 330, Constantine the Great, the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Historians consider the Dominate period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire is dated either from the de facto date of 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer, or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "Byzantine Empire", oriented toward Hellenic culture and governed by the Byzantine emperors.[lower-alpha 1] Given that "Byzantine" is a later historiographical designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintained Roman identity, this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate.[lower-alpha 2] Under Justinian I, in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire to Anatolia and the Balkans.[lower-alpha 3] The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos at the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.[lower-alpha 4] In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himself kayser-i Rûm ("Caesar of the Romans"),[lower-alpha 5] thus claiming to be the new emperor,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. a claim maintained by succeeding sultans.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Competing claims of succession to the Roman Empire have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerous later pretenders.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
Legitimacy
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File:Denarius of Pescennius Niger.png
Coin of Pescennius Niger, a Roman usurper who claimed imperial power AD 193–194. Legend: IMP CAES C PESC NIGER IVST AVG
While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. From the rise of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to the sack of Rome in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations (an average of one usurpation or attempt about every four years). From the murder of Commodus in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, with regicide in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor by late antiquity.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent, in the Roman Empire,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the Roman army.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. With the exception of Titus (r. 79–81; son of Vespasian), no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of his father died a natural death until Constantine I in 337. Control of Rome itself and approval of the Roman Senate held some importance as legitimising factors, but were mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemed public enemies by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in the Year of the Four Emperors (69), when claimants were crowned by armies in the Roman provinces, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by the Crisis of the Third Century (235–285). By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" (the term typically used for usurpers) is often a moral one (with the tyrants ascribed wicked behaviour) rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In the Historia Augusta, an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurper Pescennius Niger (193–194) is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated by Septimius Severus (r. 193–211).Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. This is also followed in modern historiography, where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate, emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
List inclusion criteria
Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:
- Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. From 286 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. but the same is not always applied during the early Empire.Lua error: not enough memory. For the purposes of consistency, later senior emperors' tenures as co-emperors are not counted as part of their reign. The list also gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
- Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital of Constantinople was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
In the case of non-dynastic emperors after or in the middle of the rule of a dynasty, it is customary among historians to group them together with the rulers of said dynasty,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. an approach that is followed in this list. Dynastic breaks with non-dynastic rulers are indicated with thickened horizontal lines.
Principate (27 BC – AD 284)
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Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)
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| Portrait | Name[lower-alpha 6] | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:04.2022 Augustus Bevilacqua cropped.jpg | Augustus Caesar Augustus |
16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 (Lua error: not enough memory.)[lower-alpha 7] |
Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, the Roman Senate. | 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 (aged 75) Born as Gaius Octavius; first elected Roman consul on 19 August 43 BC. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:MSR-Ra342b-DM (1) (cropped2).jpg | Tiberius Tiberius Caesar Augustus |
17 September 14 – 16 March 37 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus | 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 (aged 77) Died probably of natural causes, allegedly murdered at the instigation of CaligulaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Caligula MET DP337264 (cropped).jpg | Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
18 March 37 – 24 January 41 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Grandnephew and adopted heir of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus | 31 August 12 – 24 January 41 (aged 28) Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard and senatorsLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Claudius crop (cropped).jpg | Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
24 January 41 – 13 October 54 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Uncle of Caligula, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted by the Senate | 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54 (aged 63) Began the Roman conquest of Britain. Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favor of her son NeroLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Nero Glyptothek Munich 321 (cropped).jpg | Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus |
13 October 54 – 9 June 68 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus | 15 December 37 – 9 June 68 (aged 30) Committed suicide after being deserted by the Praetorian Guard and sentenced to death by the SenateLua error: not enough memory. |
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Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Roman emperor Galba, Gustav III's Museum of Antiquities, Stockholm (20) (35867773310) edited (cropped).jpg | Galba Servius Galba Caesar Augustus |
8 June 68 – 15 January 69 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide, with support of the Senate and Praetorian Guard | 24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69 (aged Lua error: not enough memory.) Murdered by soldiers of the Praetorian Guard in a coup led by OthoLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Paris - Musée du Louvre (30612822394) (cropped).jpg | Otho Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus |
15 January – 16 April 69 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Seized power through a coup against Galba | 28 April 32 – 16 April 69 (aged 36) Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to VitelliusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Vitellius Bardo National Museum (cropped).JPG | Vitellius Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus |
19 April – 20 December 69 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Governor of Germania Inferior, proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions on 2 January in opposition to Galba and Otho, later recognized by the Senate | 24 September 15 – 20/22 December 69 (aged 54) Murdered by Vespasian's troopsLua error: not enough memory. |
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Flavian dynasty (69–96)
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Naples Archaeology Museum (5914222133) cropped.jpg | Vespasian Caesar Vespasianus Augustus |
1 July 69 – 23 June 79 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Proclaimed by the eastern legions on 1 July 69 in opposition to Vitellius, later recognized by the Senate | 17 November 9 – 23 June 79 (aged 69) Began construction of the Colosseum; died of dysenteryLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Titus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3159 (cropped).jpg | Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus |
24 June 79 – 13 September 81 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Vespasian | 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 (aged 41) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Domiziano da collezione albani, fine del I sec. dc. 02 cropped (cropped).jpg | Domitian Caesar Domitianus Augustus |
14 September 81 – 18 September 96 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian | 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 (aged 44) Assassinated in a conspiracy of court officials, possibly involving NervaLua error: not enough memory. |
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Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Nerva.JPG | Nerva Nerva Caesar Augustus |
18 September 96 – 27 January 98 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Proclaimed emperor by the Senate after the murder of Domitian | 8 November 30 – 27 January 98 (aged 67) First of the "Five Good Emperors". Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Traianus Glyptothek Munich 72 (cropped).jpg | Trajan Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus |
28 January 98 – 7/11 August 117 (19 years, 6 months and 10/14 days) |
Adopted son of Nerva | 18 September 53 – 7/11 August 117 (aged 63) First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Публий Элий Адрианның бьюсты.jpg | Hadrian Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus |
11 August 117 – 10 July 138 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Cousin of Trajan, allegedly adopted on his deathbed | 24 January 76 – 10 July 138 (aged 62) Ended Roman expansionism. Destroyed Judea after a massive revolt. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Marble portrait of the emperor Antoninus Pius (cropped).jpg | Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius[lower-alpha 8] |
10 July 138 – 7 March 161 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Adopted son of Hadrian | 19 September 86 – 7 March 161 (aged 74) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Metropolitan Marcus Aurelius Roman 2C AD 2.JPG | Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |
7 March 161 – 17 March 180 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus Pius. Until 169 reigned jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, the first time multiple emperors shared power. Since 177 reigned jointly with his son Commodus | 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 (aged 58) Last of the "Five Good Emperors"; also one of the most representative Stoic philosophers. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Lucius Verus bust (crop).png | Lucius Verus Lucius Aurelius Verus |
7 March 161 – January/February 169 (7 years and 11 months) |
Adopted son of Antoninus Pius, joint emperor with his adoptive brother, Marcus Aurelius | 15 December 130 – early 169 (aged 38) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Commodus Musei Capitolini MC1120 (cropped enhanced).jpg | Commodus Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus / Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus |
17 March 180 – 31 December 192 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Marcus Aurelius. Proclaimed co-emperor in 177, at age 16, becoming the first emperor to be elevated during predecessor's lifetime | 31 August 161 – 31 December 192 (aged 31) Strangled to death in a conspiracy involving his praetorian prefect, Laetus, and mistress, MarciaLua error: not enough memory. |
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Year of the Five Emperors (193)
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- Note: The other claimants during the Year of the Five Emperors were Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, generally regarded as usurpers.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence (cropped).jpg | Pertinax Publius Helvius Pertinax |
1 January – 28 March 193 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
City prefect of Rome at Commodus's death, set up as emperor by the praetorian prefect, Laetus, with consent of the Senate | 1 August 126 – 28 March 193 (aged 66) Murdered by mutinous soldiers of the Praetorian GuardLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Lyon 5e - Musée Lugdunum - EnQuête de pouvoir - Buste de Didius Iulianus 01 (cropped).jpeg | Didius Julianus Marcus Didius Severus Julianus |
28 March – 1 June 193 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor | 30 January 133 – 1/2 June 193 (aged 60) Killed on order of the Senate, at the behest of Septimius SeverusLua error: not enough memory. |
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Severan dynasty (193–235)
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<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (§) – Varying ascribed status[lower-alpha 9]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357 (cropped).jpg | Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax |
9 April 193 – 4 February 211 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Governor of Upper Pannonia, acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions following the murder of Pertinax | 11 April 145 – 4 February 211 (aged 65) First non-European emperor. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Caracalla Musei Capitolini MC2310.jpg | Caracalla Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |
4 February 211 – 8 April 217 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Septimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor on 28 January 198, at age 10. Succeeded jointly with his brother, Geta, in 211 | 4 April 188 – 8 April 217 (aged 29) First child emperor. Granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Murdered by a soldier at the instigation of MacrinusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Geta (cropped).jpg | Geta Publius Septimius Geta |
4 February 211 – 26 December 211 (10 months and 15/22 days) |
Son of Septimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor in October 209, succeeded jointly with his older brother, Caracalla | 7 March 189 – 26 December 211 (aged 22) Murdered on order of his brother, CaracallaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust of Macrinus - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016.jpg | Macrinus Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus |
11 April 217 – 8 June 218 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Praetorian prefect of Caracalla, accepted as emperor by the army and Senate after having arranged his predecessor's death in fear of his own life | c. 165 – June 218 (aged approx. 53) First non-senator to become emperor, and first emperor not to visit Rome after acceding. Executed during a revolt of the troops in favor of Elagabalus.Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Diadumenian, denarius, 218, RIC 4b 118 (obverse).png | Diadumenian (§) Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus |
Late May – June 218 (less than a month) |
Son of Macrinus, named co-emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of Elagabalus | 14 September 208 – June 218 (aged 9) Caught in flight and executed in favor of ElagabalusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust of Elagabalus - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016 (2) (cropped).jpg | Elagabalus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus |
16 May 218 – 12 March 222 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla, acclaimed as emperor by rebellious legions in opposition to Macrinus at the instigation of his grandmother, Julia Maesa | 203/204 – 11/12 March 222 (aged 18) Murdered by the Praetorian Guard alongside his mother, probably at the instigation of Julia MaesaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust Alexander Severus Louvre Ma1051 n2 (cropped).jpg | Severus Alexander Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander |
13 March 222 – 21 March 235 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Cousin and adopted heir of Elagabalus | 1 October 208 – 21 March 235 (aged 26) Lynched by mutinous troops, alongside his motherLua error: not enough memory. |
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Crisis of the Third Century (235–285)
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<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[lower-alpha 10]
<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (§) – Varying ascribed status[lower-alpha 9]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Maximinus Thrax Musei Capitolini MC473 (cropped).jpg | Maximinus I "Thrax" Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus |
c.Lua error: not enough memory. March 235 – c. June 238[lower-alpha 11] (3 years and 3 months) |
Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander | c. 172–180 – c. June 238 (aged approx. 58–66) First commoner to become emperor. Murdered by his men during the siege of AquileiaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:CapitoliniGordianoI.jpg | Gordian I Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus |
c. April – c.Lua error: not enough memory. May 238 (22 days) |
Proclaimed emperor alongside his son, Gordian II, while serving as governor of Africa, in a revolt against Maximinus, and recognized by the Senate | c. 158 (?) – c. May 238 (aged approx. 80) Oldest emperor at the time of his elevation. Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his sonLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Denarius of Gordian II.png | Gordian II Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus |
c. April – c. May 238 (22 days) |
Proclaimed emperor alongside his father Gordian I, during revolt in Africa against Maximinus | c. 192 – c. May 238 (aged approx. 46) The shortest-reigning emperor on record. Killed outside Carthage in battle against an army loyal to Maximinus ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Pupienus Musei Capitolini MC477 (cropped).jpg | Pupienus Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus |
c. May – c. August 238 (99 days) |
Proclaimed emperor jointly with Balbinus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus | c. 164 – c. August 238 (aged approx. 74) Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian GuardLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Ritratto di balbino, 238 (cropped enhanced).jpg | Balbinus Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus |
c. May – c. August 238 (99 days) |
Proclaimed emperor jointly with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus | c. 178 – c. August 238 (aged approx. 60) Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian GuardLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust Gordianus III Louvre Ma1063 (cropped).jpg | Gordian III Marcus Antonius Gordianus |
c. August 238 – c. February 244 (c. 5 years and 6 months) |
Grandson of Gordian I, appointed as heir by Pupienus and Balbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor | 20 January 225 – c. February 244 (aged 19) Died during campaign against Persia, possibly in a murder plot instigated by Philip ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Portrait of Philip the Arab. Saint-Petersburg (head).jpg | Philip I "the Arab" Marcus Julius Philippus |
c. February 244 – September/October 249 (c. 5 years and 7/8 months) |
Praetorian prefect under Gordian III, seized power after his death | c. 204 – September/October 249 (aged approx. 45) Killed at the Battle of Verona, against DeciusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:MSR-ra-73-h-1-DM (cropped).jpg | Philip II "the Younger" (§) Marcus Julius Severus Philippus |
July/August 247 – September/October 249 (c. 2 years and 2 months) |
Son of Philip I, appointed co-emperor | c. 237 – September/October 249 (aged approx. 12) Murdered by the Praetorian GuardLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Emperor Traianus Decius (Mary Harrsch) enhanced (cropped).jpg | Decius Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius |
September/October 249 – June 251 (c. 1 year and 8/9 months) |
Proclaimed emperor by the troops in Moesia, then defeated and killed Philip I in battle | c. 190/200 – June 251 (aged approx. 50/60) Killed at the Battle of Abrittus, against the GothsLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Coin of Herennius Etruscus as augustus (obverse).jpg | Herennius Etruscus (§) Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius |
May/June – June 251 (less than a month) |
Son of Decius, appointed co-emperor | Unknown – June 251 Killed at the Battle of Abrittus alongside his fatherLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Antakya Trebonianus Gallus cropped.jpg | Trebonianus Gallus Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus |
June 251 – c.Lua error: not enough memory. August 253 (c. 2 years and 2 months) |
Senator and general, proclaimed emperor after the deaths of Decius and Herennius Etruscus | c. 206 – c. August 253 (aged 47) Murdered by his own troops in favor of AemilianLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Sestertius Hostilian-s2771 (obverse).jpg | Hostilian (§) Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus |
c. June – c. July 251 (c. 1 month) |
Younger son of Decius, named caesar by his father and proclaimed co-emperor by Trebonianus Gallus | Unknown – c. July 251 Died of plague or murdered by Trebonianus GallusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Aureus Volusianus (obverse).jpg | Volusianus (§) Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus |
c. August 251 – c. August 253 (2 years) |
Son of Gallus, appointed co-emperor | c. 230 – c. August 253 (aged approx. 23) Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his fatherLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Aemilian1.jpg | Aemilianus Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus |
c. July – c. September 253 (88 days?) |
Commander in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers after defeating barbarians, in opposition to Gallus | c. 207 – c. September 253 (aged approx. 46) Murdered by his own troops in favor of ValerianLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Silbannacus coin (transparent background).png | Silbannacus[lower-alpha 12] (#) Mar. Silbannacus |
c. September/October 253 (?) (very briefly?) |
Obscure figure known only from coinage, may have briefly ruled in Rome between Aemilianus and Valerian | Nothing knownLua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Valerianus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3387.jpg | Valerian Publius Licinius Valerianus |
c. September 253 – c. June 260 (c. 6 years and 9 months) |
Army commander in Raetia and Noricum, proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilian | c. 200 – after 262 (?) Captured at Edessa by the Persian king Shapur I, died in captivity possibly forced to swallow molten goldLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Ritratto di gallieno dalla casa delle vestali.jpg | Gallienus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus |
c. September 253 – c. September 268 (15 years) |
Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor. Sole emperor after Valerian's capture in 260 | 218 – c. September 268 (aged 50) Faced multiple revolts & barbarian invasions. Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving Claudius II and AurelianLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Saloninus coin (transparent background).png | Saloninus[lower-alpha 13] (§) Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus |
Autumn 260 (c. 1 month) |
Son of Gallienus, proclaimed caesar by his father and proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect Silvanus while besieged by Postumus | Unknown – Late 260 Murdered by troops loyal to PostumusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg | Claudius II "Gothicus" Marcus Aurelius Claudius |
c. September 268 – c. August 270 (c. 1 year and 11 months) |
Army commander in Illyria, proclaimed emperor after Gallienus's death | 10 May 214 – August/September (?) 270 (aged approx. 55) Died of plagueLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Aureus Quintillus (obverse).jpg | Quintillus Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus |
c. August – c. September 270 (c.Lua error: not enough memory. 27 days) |
Brother of Claudius II, proclaimed emperor after his death | Unknown – 270 Committed suicide or killed at the behest of AurelianLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:5305 - Brescia - S. Giulia - Ritratto di Claudio II il Gotico - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 25 Giu 2011 (cropped).jpg | Aurelian Lucius Domitius Aurelianus |
c. August 270 – c. November 275 (c. 5 years and 3 months) |
Commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus | 9 September 214 – Sept./Dec. 275 (aged 61) Reunified the Roman Empire. Murdered by the Praetorian GuardLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:P1150181 Louvre empereur Tacite Ma1018 rwk enhanced (cropped).jpg | Tacitus Marcus Claudius Tacitus |
c. December 275 – c. June 276 (c. 7 months) |
Alleged princeps senatus, proclaimed emperor by the Senate or, more likely, by his soldiers in Campania after Aurelian's death | c. 200 (?) – c. June 276 (aged approx. 76) Died of illness or possibly murderedLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Aureus Florianus Ticinum (obverse).jpg | Florianus Marcus Annius Florianus |
c. June – September 276 (80–88 days) |
Maternal half-brother of Tacitus, proclaimed himself emperor after the death of Tacitus | Unknown – September/October 276 Murdered by his own troops in favor of ProbusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Probus Musei Capitolini MC493 (cropped enhanced).jpg | Probus Marcus Aurelius Probus |
c. June 276 – c. September 282 (c. 6 years and 3 months) |
General; proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus | 19 August 232 – c. September 282 (aged 50) Murdered by his own troops in favor of CarusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Carusinc2955obverse.png | Carus Marcus Aurelius Carus |
c. September 282 – c. July/August 283 (c. 10 months) |
Praetorian prefect under Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murder | c. 224 (?) – c. July/August 283 (aged approx. 60) Died in Persia, either of illness, assassination, or by being hit by lightningLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Montemartini - Carino cropped (cropped).JPG | Carinus Marcus Aurelius Carinus |
Spring 283 – August/September 285 (2 years) |
Son of Carus, appointed joint emperor shortly before his death. Succeeded jointly with Numerian | c. 250 – August/September 285 (aged approx. 35) Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his own soldiersLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Numerian aureus (obverse).jpg | Numerian Marcus Aurelius Numerianus |
c. July/August 283 – November 284 (1 year and 3/4 months) |
Son of Carus, succeeded jointly with Carinus | c. 253 – November 284 (aged approx. 31) Died while marching to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinatedLua error: not enough memory. |
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Dominate (284–476)
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Tetrarchy (284–324)
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<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[lower-alpha 10]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Head of Diocletian, Getty Museum (cropped).jpg | Diocletian "Jovius" Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus |
20 November 284 – 1 May 305 (Lua error: not enough memory.) Whole; then East |
Commander of the imperial bodyguard, acclaimed by the army after death of Numerian, and proceeded to defeat Numerian's brother, Carinus, in battle | 22 December c.Lua error: not enough memory. 243 – 3 December c.Lua error: not enough memory. 311 (aged approx. 68) Began the last great persecution of Christianity. First emperor to voluntarily abdicate. Died in unclear circumstances, possibly suicideLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Musée Saint-Raymond - 2017-09-02 - Inv. Ra 34b - 4654 (cropped).jpg | Maximian "Herculius" Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus |
1 April 286 – 1 May 305 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) Late 306 – 11 November 308 (2 years; Italy) |
Elevated by Diocletian, ruled the western provinces | c. 250 – c. July 310 (aged approx. 60) Abdicated with Diocletian, later trying to regain power with, and then from, Maxentius, before being probably killed on orders of Constantine ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Romuliana Galerius head.jpg | Galerius Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus |
1 May 305 – May 311 (6 years; East) |
Elevated to caesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as eastern augustus upon Diocletian's abdication | c. 258 – May 311 (aged approx. 53) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Constantius Chlorus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN836 (cropped).jpg | Constantius I "Chlorus" Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius |
1 May 305 – 25 July 306 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Maximian's relation by marriage, elevated to caesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as western augustus upon Maximian's abdication | 31 March c.Lua error: not enough memory. 250 – 25 July 306 (aged approx. 56) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Severus II Aureus Joanneum.jpg | Severus II Flavius Valerius Severus |
August 306 – March/April 307 (c. 8 months; West) |
Elevated to caesar in 305 by Maximian, promoted to western augustus by Galerius upon Constantius I's death | Unknown – September 307 Surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius, later murdered or forced to commit suicideLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Head of Maxentius from Dresden Colosseum Rome Italy (cropped).jpg | Maxentius (#) Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius |
28 October 306 – 28 October 312 (6 years; Italy) |
Son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius, seized power in Italy with support of the Praetorian Guard and his father after being passed over in the succession. Not recognized by the other emperors | c. 283 – 28 October 312 (aged approx. 29) Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust of Licinius, Kunsthistorisches Museum (cropped).jpg | Licinius Valerius Licinianus Licinius |
11 November 308 – 19 September 324 (Lua error: not enough memory.) West; then East |
Elevated by Galerius to replace Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated Maximinus Daza in a civil war to become sole emperor of the East in 313 | c. 265 – early 325 (aged approx. 60) Defeated, deposed and put to death by Constantine ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Aureus of Maximinus II (obverse).jpg | Maximinus II "Daza" Galerius Valerius Maximinus |
310 – c. July 313 (3 years; East) |
Nephew of Galerius, elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 305, and acclaimed as augustus by his troops in 310 | 20 November c. 270 – c. July 313 (aged approx. 42) Defeated in civil war against Licinius, died shortly afterwardsLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Valerius Valens coin (transparent background).png | Valerius Valens[lower-alpha 14] (#) Aurelius Valerius Valens |
October 316 – c. January 317 (c. 2–3 months; West) |
Frontier commander in Dacia, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine I | Unknown – 317 Executed in the lead-up to a peace settlement between Licinius and ConstantineLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Martinian coin (transparent background).png | Martinian[lower-alpha 14] (#) Mar. Martinianus |
July – 19 September 324 (2 months; West) |
A senior bureaucrat, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine I | Unknown – 325 Deposed by Constantine and banished to Cappadocia, later executedLua error: not enough memory. |
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Constantinian dynasty (306–363)
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<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[lower-alpha 10]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Constantine Chiaramonti Inv1749 (cropped).jpg | Constantine I "the Great" Flavius Valerius Constantinus |
25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (Lua error: not enough memory.) West; then whole |
Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops as augustus. Accepted as caesar by Galerius in 306, promoted to augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to caesar in 309 | 27 February 272/273 – 22 May 337 (aged 64/65) First Christian emperor and founder of Constantinople. Sole ruler of the Empire after defeating Maxentius in 312 and Licinius in 324. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Campidoglio, Roma - Costantino II cesare dettaglio (cropped).jpg | Constantine II Flavius Claudius Constantinus |
9 September 337 – April 340 (2 years and 7 months; West) |
Son of Constantine I | c.Lua error: not enough memory. February 316 – April 340 (aged 24) Ruled the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. Killed in an ambush during a war against his brother, Constans ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Constant head.jpg | Constans I Flavius Julius Constans |
9 September 337 – January 350 (12 years and 4 months; Middle then West) |
Son of Constantine I | 322/323 – January/February 350 (aged 27) Ruled Italy, Illyricum and Africa initially, then the western empire after Constantine II's death. Overthrown and killed by MagnentiusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust of Constantius II (Mary Harrsch) (cropped).jpg | Constantius II Flavius Julius Constantius |
9 September 337 – 3 November 361 (Lua error: not enough memory.) East; then whole |
Son of Constantine I | 7 August 317 – 3 November 361 (aged 44) Ruled the east initially, then the whole empire after the death of Magnentius. Died of a fever shortly after planning to fight a war against JulianLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Medallion of Magnentius.png | Magnentius (#) Magnus Magnentius |
18 January 350 – 10 August 353 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Proclaimed emperor by the troops, in opposition to Constans I | c. 303 – 10 August 353 (aged approx. 50) Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Mons SeleucusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Coin of Nepotian.png | Nepotianus (#) Julius Nepotianus |
3 June – 30 June 350 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Son of Eutropia, a daughter of Constantius I. Proclaimed emperor in Rome in opposition to Magnentius | Unknown – 30 June 350 Captured and executed by supporters of MagnentiusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Vetranio coin (transparent background).png | Vetranio[lower-alpha 15] (#) | 1 March – 25 December 350 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
General of Constans in Illyricum, acclaimed by the Illyrian legions at the expense of Magnentius | Unknown – c. 356 Abdicated in Constantius II's favor, retired, and died 6 years laterLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Juliancng8851obverse.jpg | Julian "the Apostate" Flavius Claudius Julianus |
3 November 361 – 26 June 363 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Cousin and heir of Constantius II, acclaimed by the Gallic army around February 360; entered Constantinople on 11 December 361 | 331 – 26 June 363 (aged 32) Last non-Christian emperor. Mortally wounded during a campaign against PersiaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Jovian2 (obverse).jpg | Jovian Jovianus[lower-alpha 16] |
27 June 363 – 17 February 364 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Commander of imperial household guard; acclaimed by the army after Julian's death | 330/331 – 17 February 364 (aged 33) Possibly died of inhaling toxic fumes or indigestionLua error: not enough memory. |
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Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)
Lua error: not enough memory.
<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[lower-alpha 10]
| Portrait | Name[lower-alpha 17] | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Restored head of Valentinian I (cropped).jpg | Valentinian I "the Great" Valentinianus |
25/26 February 364 – 17 November 375 (Lua error: not enough memory.) Whole; then West |
General; proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian's death | 321 – 17 November 375 (aged 54) Last emperor to cross the Rhine into Germania. Died of a stroke while yelling at envoysLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:INC-1867-a Солид. Валент II. Ок. 375—378 гг. (аверс).png | Valens | 28 March 364 – 9 August 378 (Lua error: not enough memory.; East) |
Brother of Valentinian I, made eastern emperor by his brother (Valentinian retaining the west) | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 328 – 9 August 378 (aged nearly 50) Killed at the Battle of AdrianopleLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:INC-1866-a Солид. Прокопий. Ок. 365—366 гг. (аверс).png | Procopius (#) | 28 September 365 – 27 May 366 (Lua error: not enough memory.; East) |
Maternal cousin of Julian; revolted against Valens and captured Constantinople, where the people proclaimed him emperor | 326 – 27/28 May 366 (aged 40) Deposed, captured and executed by ValensLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Gratian Trier enhanced.jpg | Gratian Gratianus |
17 November 375 – 25 August 383 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Son of Valentinian I; proclaimed western co-emperor on 24 August 367, at age 8. Emperor in his own right after Valentinian's death | 18 April 359 – 25 August 383 (aged 24) Killed by Andragathius, an officer of Magnus MaximusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Rare aureus of Magnus Maximus (obverse transparent).png | Magnus Maximus (#) | 25 August 383 – 28 August 388 (5 years and 3 days; West) with Victor (383/387–388)[lower-alpha 18] |
General, related to Theodosius I; proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Briefly recognized by Theodosius I and Valentinian II | Unknown – 28 August 388 Defeated by Theodosius I at the Battle of Save, executed after surrenderingLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Statue of emperor Valentinian II (cropped enhanced).JPG | Valentinian II Valentinianus |
28 August 388 – 15 May 392 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed co-emperor on 22 November 375, at age 4. Sole western ruler after the defeat of Magnus Maximus in 388 | 371 – 15 May 392 (aged 20/21) Dominated by regents and co-emperors his entire reign. Probably suicide, possibly killed by ArbogastLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Eugenius coin (transparent).png | Eugenius (#) | 22 August 392 – 6 September 394 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Teacher of Latin grammar and rhetoric, secretary of Valentinian II. Proclaimed emperor by Arbogast | Unknown – 6 September 394 Defeated by Theodosius I at the Battle of the Frigidus and executedLua error: not enough memory. |
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Theodosian dynasty (379–457)
Lua error: not enough memory.
<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[lower-alpha 10]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Bust of Theodosius I (cropped).jpg | Theodosius I "the Great" |
19 January 379 – 17 January 395 (Lua error: not enough memory.) East; then whole |
Retired general; proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian. Ruler of the entire empire after Valentinian II's death | 11 January 346/347 – 17 January 395 (aged 48/49) Last emperor to briefly rule over the two halves of the Empire after the Battle of the Frigidus. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Arcadius Istanbul Museum (cropped).JPG | Arcadius | 17 January 395 – 1 May 408 (Lua error: not enough memory.; East) |
Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 16 January 383. Emperor in the east | 377 – 1 May 408 (aged 31) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Diptych of Honorius (head).jpg | Honorius | 17 January 395 – 15 August 423 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 23 January 393. Emperor in the west | 9 September 384 – 15 August 423 (aged 38) Reigned under several successive regencies. Died of edemaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Constantine III (west).png | Constantine III (#) Flavius Claudius Constantinus |
407 – 411 (4 years; West) with Constans (409–411)[lower-alpha 18] |
Common soldier, proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Recognized by Honorius in 409. Emperor in the west | Unknown – 411 (before 18 September) Surrendered to Constantius, a general of Honorius, and abdicated. Sent to Italy but murdered on the wayLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Theodosius II Louvre Ma1036.jpg | Theodosius II | 1 May 408 – 28 July 450 (Lua error: not enough memory.; East) |
Son of Arcadius; co-emperor since 10 January 402. Emperor in the east | 10 April 401 – 28 July 450 (aged 49) Died of a fall from his horseLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Rare solidus of Priscus Attalus (obverse).png | Priscus Attalus (#) | Late 409 – summer 410 (less than a year; Italy) |
A leading member of the Senate, proclaimed emperor by Alaric after the Sack of Rome. Emperor in the west | Unknown lifespan Deposed by Alaric after reconciling with Honorius. Tried to claim the throne again 414–415 but was defeated and forced into exile; fate unknownLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Constantius III diptych (detail).jpg | Constantius III | 8 February – 2 September 421 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Prominent general under Honorius and husband of Galla Placidia, a daughter of Theodosius I. Made co-emperor by Honorius. Emperor in the west | Unknown – 2 September 421 De facto ruler since 411; helped Honorius defeat numerous usurpers & foreign enemies. Died of illnessLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Joannes.png | Johannes (#) | 20 November 423 – c.Lua error: not enough memory. May 425 (1 year and a half; West) |
Senior civil servant, seized power in Rome and the west after Theodosius II delayed in nominating a successor of Honorius | Unknown – c.Lua error: not enough memory. May 425 Captured by the forces of Theodosius II, brought to Constantinople and executedLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Bust of Valentinian III, Louvre (head).jpg | Valentinian III Placidus Valentinianus |
23 October 425 – 16 March 455 (Lua error: not enough memory.; West) |
Son of Constantius III, grandson of Theodosius I and great-grandson of Valentinian I, installed as emperor of the west by Theodosius II | 2 July 419 – 16 March 455 (aged 35) Faced the invasion of the Huns. Murdered by Optelas and Thraustelas, retainers of AetiusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Marcian.png | Marcian Marcianus |
25 August 450 – 27 January 457 (Lua error: not enough memory.; East) |
Soldier and official, proclaimed emperor after marrying Pulcheria, a daughter of Arcadius. Emperor in the east | 391/392 – 27 January 457 (aged 65) Died after a prolonged period of illnessLua error: not enough memory. |
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Last western emperors (455–476)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Solidus of Petronius Maximus.png | Petronius Maximus | 17 March – 31 May 455 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General and civil official, murdered Valentinian III and married his widow, Licinia Eudoxia | Unknown – 31 May 455 Killed by a mob while fleeing during the Vandalic sack of RomeLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus Avitus Arles (obverse).jpg | Avitus Eparchius Avitus |
9 July 455 – 17 October 456 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths and Gallo-Romans after the death of Petronius Maximus | Unknown – 456/457 Defeated and deposed by the magister militum Ricimer, became a bishop. Died shortly after of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to deathLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Emperor Majorian Obverse.jpg | Majorian Iulius Valerius Maiorianus |
1 April 457 – 2 August 461 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; proclaimed by the army, backed by Ricimer | Unknown – 7 August 461 Reconquered Gaul, Hispania and Dalmatia. Deposed and executed by RicimerLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Libiusseverus01854obverse.jpg | Libius Severus (Severus III) |
19 November 461 – 14 November 465 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer | Unknown – 14 November 465 Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Anthemius.png | Anthemius Procopius Anthemius |
12 April 467 – 11 July 472 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; great-grandson of Procopius, a cousin of Julian, and husband of Marcia Euphemia, a daughter of Marcian. Proclaimed western emperor by Leo I | Unknown – 11 July 472 The last effective emperor of the West. Murdered by Gundobad after a civil war with RicimerLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Tremissis Olybrius (obverse).jpg | Olybrius Anicius Olybrius |
c.Lua error: not enough memory. April – 2 November 472 (c. 7 months) |
Husband of Placidia, a daughter of Valentinian III. Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer | Unknown – 2 November 472 Died of dropsyLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus Glycerius Ravenna (obverse).jpg | Glycerius | 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474 (1 year, 3 months and 19/21 days) |
General; proclaimed emperor by Gundobad | Unknown lifespan Deposed by Julius Nepos and made a bishop, subsequent fate unknownLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Julius Nepos.png | Julius Nepos | 24 June 474 – 28 August 475 (Lua error: not enough memory.) August 475 – 9 May 480 (4 years and 8 months, in Dalmatia) |
General; married to a relative of Verina, the wife of the eastern emperor Leo I. Installed as western emperor by Leo | Unknown – 9 May 480 Fled to Dalmatia in the face of an attack by his magister militum Orestes. Continued to claim to be emperor in exile. Murdered by his retainersLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:RomulusAugustus.jpg | Romulus "Augustulus" Romulus Augustus |
31 October 475 – 4 September 476 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Proclaimed emperor by his father, the magister militum Orestes | Roughly 465 – after 507/511? The last western emperor. Deposed by the Germanic general Odoacer and retired. Possibly alive as late as 507 or 511; fate unknownLua error: not enough memory. |
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Later eastern emperors (457–1453)
Lua error: not enough memory.
Leonid dynasty (457–518)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Leo I Louvre Ma1012 n2 (cropped).jpg | Leo I "the Butcher" | 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Low-ranking army officer; chosen by the magister militum Aspar to succeed Marcian | 400/401 – 18 January 474 (aged 73) First emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Died of dysenteryLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Leo II.png | Leo II "the Younger" | 18 January – November 474 (10 months) |
Grandson of Leo I and son of Zeno; co-emperor since 17 November 473 | 467 – November 474 (aged 7) Youngest emperor at the time of his death. Died of illnessLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Semissis of Zeno.png | Zeno | 29 January 474 – 9 January 475 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Husband of Ariadne, a daughter of Leo I, and father of Leo II. Crowned senior co-emperor with the approval of the Senate | 425 – 9 April 491 (aged 65) Fled to Isauria in the face of a Revolt led by his mother-in-law Verina & Basiliscus.Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Basiliscus.png | Basiliscus | 9 January 475 – August 476 (1 year and 7 months) with Marcus (475–476)[lower-alpha 18] |
Brother of Verina, the wife of Leo I. Proclaimed emperor by his sister in opposition to Zeno and seized Constantinople | Unknown – 476/477 Deposed by Zeno upon his return to Constantinople; imprisoned in a dried-up reservoir and starved to deathLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Semissis of Zeno.png | Zeno (second reign) |
August 476 – 9 April 491 (14 years and 8 months) |
Retook the throne with the help of general Illus | 425 – 9 April 491 (aged 65) Saw the end of the Western Roman Empire. Died of dysentery or epilepsyLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Flavius Anastasius Probus 01c (Anastasius I) (cropped).JPG | Anastasius I "Dicorus" | 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Government official; chosen by Ariadne, whom he married, to succeed Zeno | 430/431 – 9 July 518 (aged 88) Oldest emperor at the time of his death. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
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Justinian dynasty (518–602)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Solidus of Justin I (obverse).jpg | Justin I Justinus |
9/10 July 518 – 1 August 527 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Soldier; proclaimed emperor by the troops after the death of Anastasius I | 450 – 1 August 527 (aged 77) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Mosaic of Justinianus I (cropped).jpg | Justinian I "the Great" Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus |
1 April 527 – 14 November 565 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Nephew and adoptive son of Justin I | 482 – 14 November 565 (aged 83) Temporarily reconquered half of the Western Roman Empire, including Rome. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Justin II (obverse).jpg | Justin II Justinus |
14 November 565 – 5 October 578 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Vigilantia, sister of Justinian I | Unknown – 5 October 578 Lost most of Italy to the Lombards by 570. Suffered an attack of dementia in 574, whereafter the government was run by regents. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Tiberios II (obverse).jpg | Tiberius II Constantine Tiberius Constantinus |
26 September 578 – 14 August 582 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Adoptive son of Justin II | Mid-6th century – 14 August 582 Died after a sudden illness, supposedly after accidentally eating bad foodLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Maurice (transitional issue).png | Maurice Mauricius Tiberius |
13 August 582 – 27 November 602 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Theodosius (590–602)[lower-alpha 18] |
Husband of Constantina, a daughter of Tiberius II | 539 – 27 November 602 (aged 63) Captured and executed by troops loyal to PhocasLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Phocas (cropped3to4).jpg | Phocas Focas |
23 November 602 – 5 October 610 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Centurion in the army; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Maurice | 547 – 5 October 610 (aged 63) Deposed and then beheaded on the orders of HeracliusLua error: not enough memory. |
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Heraclian dynasty (610–695)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Heraclius as job (cropped).jpg | Heraclius Ἡράκλειος[lower-alpha 19] |
5 October 610 – 11 February 641 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage. Led a revolt against Phocas | 574/575 – 11 February 641 (aged 66) Ended the Persian Wars, but suffered the loss of the Levant to the Muslims. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus Heraclius Constantine Obverse.jpg | Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III)[lower-alpha 20] Heraclius Constantinus Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος |
11 February – 25 May 641 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 22 January 613 | 3 May 612 – 25 May 641 (aged 29) Died of tuberculosisLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Heraclius solidus sb 764 (obverse).png | Heraclonas Heraclius, Ἡράκλειος |
25 May – 5 November (?) 641 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Tiberius-David, son of Heraclius (641)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 4 July 638. Co-ruler with Constantine and then sole emperor under the regency of his mother Martina | 626 – unknown Deposed, mutilated and exiled, subsequent fate unknownLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus Constans II (transparent).png | Constans II "the Bearded" Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος |
September 641 – 15 July 668 (26 years and 10 months) |
Son of Heraclius Constantine; proclaimed co-emperor by Heraclonas at age 11 | 7 November 630 – 15 July 668 (aged 37) Lost Egypt in 641. Murdered in Sicily while bathing by supporters of MezeziusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Constantine IV mosaic (cropped) (2).png | Constantine IV Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος |
September 668 – 10 July (?) 685 (16 years and 10 months) with Heraclius and Tiberius, sons of Constans II (659–681)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Constans II; co-emperor since 13 April 654 | Roughly 650 – 10 July (?) 685 (aged about 35) Defeated the First Arab Siege of Constantinople. Died of dysenteryLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Justinian II mosaic (cropped).png | Justinian II "Rhinotmetus" Iustinianus, Ἰουστινιανός |
July 685 – 695 (10 years) |
Son of Constantine IV | 668/669 – 4 November 711 (aged 42) Deposed and mutilated (hence his nickname, "Slit-nosed") by Leontius in 695; returned to the throne in 705Lua error: not enough memory. |
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Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Solidus of Leontius.png | Leontius Λέων(τιος) |
695 – 698 (3 years) |
General; deposed Justinian II | Unknown – 15 February (?) 706 Lost Africa & Carthage to the Muslims. Deposed by Tiberius III in 698 and later executed by Justinian II in 706Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Tiberius III Apsimar.png | Tiberius III Τιβέριος |
698 – 21 August (?) 705 (7 years) |
General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Leontius | Unknown – 15 February (?) 706 Deposed and later executed by Justinian II alongside LeontiusLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Justinian II, 2nd reign (transparent).png | Justinian II "Rhinotmetus" Iustinianus, Ἰουστινιανός (second reign) |
21 August (?) 705 – 4 November 711 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Tiberius, son of Justinian II (706–711)[lower-alpha 18] |
Retook the throne with the aid of the Khazars | 668/669 – 4 November 711 (aged 42) Killed by supporters of Philippicus after fleeing ConstantinopleLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Philippicus.png | Philippicus Filepicus, Φιλιππικός |
4 November 711 – 3 June 713 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian II | Unknown – 20 January 714/715 Deposed and blinded in favor of Anastasius II, later died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Tremissis of Anastasius II.png | Anastasius II Artemius Anastasius Ἀρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος |
4 June 713 – fall 715 (less than 2 years) |
Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of Philippicus | Unknown – 1 June 719 Abdicated to Theodosius III after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded by Leo III after an attempt to retake the throneLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Coin of Theodosius III.png | Theodosius III Θεοδόσιος |
Fall 715 – 25 March 717 (less than 2 years) |
Tax-collector, possibly son of Tiberius III; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Anastasius II | Unknown lifespan Deposed by Leo III, whereafter he became a monk. His subsequent fate is unknown.Lua error: not enough memory. |
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Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty (717–802)
Lua error: not enough memory.
<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[lower-alpha 10]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Solidus of Leo III sb1504.png | Leo III "the Isaurian" Λέων[lower-alpha 21] |
25 March 717 – 18 June 741 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; deposed Theodosius III | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 685 – 18 June 741 (aged approx. 56) Ended Muslim expansion in Anatolia. Died of dropsyLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Constantine V (transparent background).png | Constantine V "Copronymus" Κωνσταντῖνος |
18 June 741 – 14 September 775 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Leo III; co-emperor since 31 March 720 | 718 – 14 September 775 (aged 57) Last emperor to rule over Rome. Died of a feverLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Artabasdos.png | Artabasdos (#) Ἀρτάβασδος |
June 741 – 2 November 743 (2 years and 5 months) with Nikephoros, son of Artabasdos (741–743) |
Husband of Anna, a daughter of Leo III. Revolted against Constantine V and briefly ruled at Constantinople | Unknown lifespan Deposed and blinded by Constantine V, relegated to a monastery where he died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Leo IV and Constantine VI.png | Leo IV "the Khazar" Λέων |
14 September 775 – 8 September 780 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Constantine V; co-emperor since 6 June 751 | 25 January 750 – 8 September 780 (aged 30) Died of a feverLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Constantine VI.png | Constantine VI Κωνσταντῖνος |
8 September 780 – 19 August 797 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Leo IV; co-emperor since 14 April 776 | 14 January 771 – before 805 (aged less than 34) Last emperor to be recognized in the West. Deposed, blinded and exiled by IreneLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Solidus of Irene.png | Irene Εἰρήνη |
19 August 797 – 31 October 802 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Became co-ruler in 792. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empire | c. 752 – 9 August 803 (aged approx. 51) Deposed by Nikephoros I and exiled to Lesbos, where she died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
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Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Nikephoros I Logothetes.jpg | Nikephoros I "the Logothete" Νικηφόρος |
31 October 802 – 26 July 811 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Court official; proclaimed emperor in opposition to Irene | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 760 – 26 July 811 (aged approx. 51) Killed at the Battle of PliskaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:INC-1870-r Солид. Никифор I и его сын Ставракий. Ок. 803—811 гг. (реверс).png | Staurakios Σταυράκιος |
28 July – 2 October 811 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Nikephoros I; co-emperor since 25 December 803. Proclaimed emperor after the death of his father | 790s – 11 January 812 (in his late teens) Wounded at Pliska; abdicated in favor of Michael I and became a monkLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Byzantine co-emperor.jpg | Michael I Rangabe Μιχαὴλ |
2 October 811 – 11 July 813 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Theophylact and Staurakios, sons of Michael I (811–813)[lower-alpha 18] |
Husband of Prokopia, a daughter of Nikephoros I | c. 770 – 11 January 844 (aged approx. 74) Abdicated in 813 in favor of Leo V after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Versinikia and retired as a monkLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Leo V in Madrid Skylitzes.jpg | Leo V "the Armenian" Λέων |
11 July 813 – 25 December 820 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Constantine Symbatios (813–820)[lower-alpha 18] |
General; proclaimed emperor after the Battle of Versinikia | c. 775 – 25 December 820 (aged approx. 45) Murdered while in church by supporters of Michael IILua error: not enough memory. |
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Amorian dynasty (820–867)
Lua error: not enough memory.
<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (§) – Varying ascribed status[lower-alpha 22]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Michael II in the Madrid Skylitzes (cropped).jpg | Michael II "the Amorian" Μιχαὴλ |
25 December 820 – 2 October 829 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General sentenced to execution by Leo V; proclaimed emperor by Leo V's assassins and crowned by Patriarch Theodotus I on the same day | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 770 – 2 October 829 (aged approx. 59) Saw the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily. Died of kidney failureLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Theophilos (cropped2).jpg | Theophilos Θεόφιλος |
2 October 829 – 20 January 842 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Constantine (c.Lua error: not enough memory. 834–835)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Michael II; co-emperor since 12 May 821 | 812/813 – 20 January 842 (aged 30) Died of dysenteryLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Theodora in the Madrid Skylitzes2 (cropped).png | Theodora (§) Θεοδώρα |
20 January 842 – 15 March 856 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Thekla (842–856)[lower-alpha 18] |
Widow of Theophilos; ruler in her own right during the minority of their son Michael III | c. 815 – c. 867 (aged approx. 52) Deposed by Michael III in 856, later died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Michael iii.jpg | Michael III "the Drunkard" Μιχαὴλ |
20 January 842 – 24 September 867 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Theophilos; co-emperor since 16 May 840. Ruled under his mother's regency until 15 March 856 | 19 January 840 – 24 September 867 (aged 27) The youngest emperor. Murdered by Basil I and his supportersLua error: not enough memory. |
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Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Roman Emperor Basil I (cropped).png | Basil I "the Macedonian" Βασίλειος |
24 September 867 – 29 August 886 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Constantine (868–879)[lower-alpha 18] |
General; proclaimed co-emperor by Michael III on 26 May 866 and became senior emperor after Michael's murder | 811, 830 or 836 – 29 August 886 (aged approx. 50, 56 or 75) Captured Bari in 876 & Taranto in 880. Died after a hunting accidentLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Emperor Leo VI detail (head).jpg | Leo VI "the Wise" Λέων |
29 August 886 – 11 May 912 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Basil I or illegitimate son of Michael III; crowned co-emperor on 6 January 870 | 19 September 866 – 11 May 912 (aged 45) Conquered Southern Italy but lost the remnants of Sicily in 902. Died of an intestinal diseaseLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Emperor Alexander head.jpg | Alexander Αλέξανδρος |
11 May 912 – 6 June 913 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Basil I; co-emperor since September or October 879 | 23 November 870 – 6 June 913 (aged 42) Died of illness, possibly testicular cancerLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (cropped).jpg | Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus Κωνσταντῖνος |
6 June 913 – 9 November 959 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Leo VI; co-emperor since 15 May 908. Successively dominated by regents and co-emperors until 27 January 945, when he deposed Romanos I's sons | 17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959 (aged 54) Saw the beginning of renewed expansion in the East against the Arabs. Remembered for his numerous writings. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Seal of Romanos I Lekapenos (detail).jpg | Romanos I Lekapenos Ῥωμανὸς |
17 December 920 – 20 December 944 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Christopher (921–931), Stephen and Constantine Lekapenos (924–945)[lower-alpha 18] |
Overthrew Constantine VII's regency, married him to his daughter Helena and was made senior co-emperor. Made several sons co-emperors to curb Constantine VII's authority | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 870 – 15 June 948 (aged approx. 78) Deposed by his sons Stephen and Constantine. Died of natural causes in exile as a monkLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Romanos (cropped) (cropped).JPG | Romanos II Ῥωμανὸς |
9 November 959 – 15 March 963 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Constantine VII and grandson of Romanos I; co-emperor since 6 April 945 | 938 – 15 March 963 (aged 24/25) Reconquered Crete in 961. Died of exhaustion on a hunting tripLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Nikephoros Phokas (cropped 1).jpg | Nikephoros II Phokas Νικηφόρος |
16 August 963 – 11 December 969 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; proclaimed emperor on 2 July 963 against the unpopular Joseph Bringas (regent for the young sons of Romanos II), entered Constantinople on 16 August 963. Married Theophano, the widow of Romanos II | c. 912 – 11 December 969 (aged approx. 57) Reconquered Cilicia & Antioch. Murdered in a conspiracy involving his former supporters (including John I Tzimiskes) and TheophanoLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:John I in Madrid Skylitzes2.jpg | John I Tzimiskes Ἰωάννης |
11 December 969 – 10 January 976 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Nephew of Nikephoros II, took his place as senior co-emperor | c. 925 – 10 January 976 (aged approx. 50) Reconquered Eastern Thrace from the First Bulgarian Empire. Possibly poisoned by Basil LekapenosLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Basil II crop.png | Basil II "the Bulgar-Slayer" Βασίλειος |
10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Romanos II; co-emperor since 22 April 960, briefly reigned as senior emperor in March–August 963. Succeeded as senior emperor upon the death of John I | 958 – 15 December 1025 (aged 67) The longest-reigning emperor; best known for his reconquest of Bulgaria. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Constantine VIII in the Exultet roll (3).jpg | Constantine VIII Κωνσταντῖνος |
15 December 1025 – 12 November 1028 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Romanos II and brother of Basil II; co-emperor since 30 March 962 | 960 – 12 November 1028 (aged 68) De jure longest-reigning emperor. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Romanos III in Madrid Skylitzes.png | Romanos III Argyros Ῥωμανὸς |
12 November 1028 – 11 April 1034 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Husband of Zoë, a daughter of Constantine VIII | c. 968 – 11 April 1034 (aged approx. 66) Temporarily reconquered Edessa in 1031. Possibly drowned on Zoë's ordersLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Michael IV the Paphlagonian (cropped).jpg | Michael IV "the Paphlagonian" Μιχαὴλ |
12 April 1034 – 10 December 1041 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Lover of Zoë, made emperor after their marriage following Romanos III's death | c. 1010 – 10 December 1041 (aged approx. 31) Died of epilepsyLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Michael V in Madrid Skylitzes.jpg | Michael V "Kalaphates" Μιχαὴλ |
13 December 1041 – 21 April 1042 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Nephew and designated heir of Michael IV, proclaimed emperor by Zoë three days after Michael IV's death | c. 1015 – unknown Deposed in a popular uprising after attempting to sideline Zoë, blinded and forced to become a monkLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Zoe mosaic Hagia Sophia (cropped).jpg | Zoë Porphyrogenita Ζωή |
21 April – 11 June 1042 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Daughter of Constantine VIII and widow of Romanos III and Michael IV. Ruled in her own right from Michael V's deposition until her marriage to Constantine IX. | c. 978 – 1050 (aged approx. 72) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Theodora Porphyrogenita crown.jpg | Theodora Porphyrogenita Θεοδώρα |
21 April – 11 June 1042 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Daughter of Constantine VIII and sister of Zoë, proclaimed co-empress during the revolt that deposed Michael V | c. 980 – 31 August 1056 (aged approx. 76) Sidelined after Zoë's marriage to Constantine IX, returned to the throne in 1055Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Emperor Constantine IX (cropped).jpg | Constantine IX Monomachos Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος[lower-alpha 23] |
11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Husband of Zoë, crowned the day after their marriage | c. 1006 – 11 January 1055 (aged approx. 49) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Theodora Porphyrogenita crown.jpg | Theodora Porphyrogenita Θεοδώρα (second reign) |
11 January 1055 – 31 August 1056 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Claimed the throne again after Constantine IX's death as the last living member of the Macedonian dynasty | c. 980 – 31 August 1056 (aged approx. 76) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Tetarteron of Michael VI (reverse).png | Michael VI Bringas "Stratiotikos" Μιχαήλ[lower-alpha 23] |
22 August 1056 – 30 August 1057 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Proclaimed emperor by Theodora on her deathbed | 980s/990s – c. 1057 (in his sixties) Deposed in a revolt, retired to a monastery and died soon afterwardsLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:INC-3060-r Номисма тетартерон. Исаак I Комнин. Ок. 1057—1059 гг. (реверс).png | Isaac I Komnenos Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός |
1 September 1057 – 22 November 1059 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General, proclaimed emperor on 8 June 1057 in opposition to Michael VI | c. 1007 – 31 May/1 June 1060 (aged approx. 53) Abdicated to Constantine X due to illness and hostile courtiers, became a monkLua error: not enough memory. |
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Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)
Lua error: not enough memory.
<span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="Lua error: not enough memory."> (§) – Varying ascribed status[lower-alpha 22]
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Constantine X portrait.jpg | Constantine X Doukas Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας |
23 November 1059 – 23 May 1067 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Designated as emperor by Isaac I Komnenos during his abdication | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 1006 – 23 May 1067 (aged approx. 61) Lost nearly all Italian territories to the Normans. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Eudokia Makrembolitissa portrait.png | Eudokia Makrembolitissa Εὐδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα (§) |
23 May – 31 December 1067 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Widow of Constantine X; ruler in her own right on behalf of their sons until her marriage to Romanos IV. Briefly resumed her regency in September 1071 | c. 1030 – after 1078 Became a nun in November 1071 and later died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Romanus IV coin crop.png | Romanos IV Diogenes Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης |
1 January 1068 – 26 August 1071 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Leo and Nikephoros Diogenes (c.Lua error: not enough memory. 1070–71)[lower-alpha 18][lower-alpha 24] |
Husband of Eudokia. Regent and senior co-emperor together with Constantine X's and Eudokia's children | c. 1032 – 4 August 1072 (aged approx. 40) Captured at Manzikert by the Seljuk Turks. After his release blinded on 29 June 1072 by John Doukas, later dying of his woundsLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Michael VII Doukas on the Holy Crown (cropped).jpg | Michael VII Doukas "Parapinakes" Μιχαὴλ Δούκας |
1 October 1071 – 24/31 March 1078 (6 years, 5 months and 23/30 days) with Konstantios (1060–1078), Andronikos (1068–1070s) and Constantine Doukas (1074–78; 1st time)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Constantine X; made co-emperor in 1060 with Eudokia and Romanos IV. Proclaimed sole emperor after Romanos' defeat at the Battle of Manzikert | c. 1050 – c. 1090 (aged approx. 40) Lost nearly all of Anatolia to the Turks. Forced to become a monk after a popular uprising. Died of natural causes several years laterLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Nikephoros III (cropped).jpg | Nikephoros III Botaneiates Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης |
3 April 1078 – 1 April 1081 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
General; revolted against Michael VII on 2 July or 2 October 1077 and entered Constantinople on 27 March or 3 April. Married Maria of Alania, the former wife of Michael VII | 1001/1002 – c. 1081 (aged approx. 80) Abdicated after Alexios I captured Constantinople, became a monk and died of natural causes, probably later in the same yearLua error: not enough memory. |
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Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)
Lua error: not enough memory.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Alexios I Komnenos (cropped).jpg | Alexios I Komnenos Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός |
1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Constantine Doukas (1081–1087; 2nd time)[lower-alpha 18] |
Nephew of Isaac I, also husband of Irene Doukaina, a grand-niece of Constantine X. General; revolted against Nikephoros III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 April | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 1057 – 15 August 1118 (aged approx. 61) Started the Crusades & the reconquest of Anatolia. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:John II head.png | John II Komnenos "the Good" Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός |
15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Alexios Komnenos, son of John II (1119–1142)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 1092 | 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143 (aged 55) Reconquered most of Anatolia by the time of his death. Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated (perhaps involving Raymond of Poitiers or supporters of Manuel I)Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Manuel I Comnenus (cropped).jpg | Manuel I Komnenos "the Great" Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός |
8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Youngest son and allegedly designated heir of John II on his deathbed, crowned in November 1143 after a few months of having to establish his rights | 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180 (aged 61) Last emperor to attempt reconquests in the west. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:Alexios II Komnenos (Vat.gr.1851 folio 2v) (cropped).jpg | Alexios II Komnenos Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός |
24 September 1180 – c. September 1183 (3 years) |
Son of Manuel I; co-emperor since 1171 | 14 September 1169 – c. September 1183 (aged 14) Strangled on the orders of Andronikos I, body thrown in the seaLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:143 - Andronikos I Komnenos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos I Komnenos "Misophaes" Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός |
c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185 (2 years) with John Komnenos, son of Andronikos I (1183–1185)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Isaac Komnenos, a son of Alexios I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murdered | c. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185 (aged 64–67) Overthrown by Isaac II, tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in the HippodromeLua error: not enough memory. |
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Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:144 - Isaac II Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Isaac II Angelos Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος |
12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Great-grandson of Alexios I. Resisted an order of arrest issued by Andronikos I, after which he was proclaimed emperor by the people of Constantinople. Captured and killed Andronikos I | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 1156 – January 1204 (aged 47) Suffered the loss of Bulgaria. Overthrown and blinded by Alexios III in 1195, reinstalled in 1203Lua error: not enough memory. |
| File:145 - Alexios III Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios III Angelos Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός[lower-alpha 25] |
8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Elder brother of Isaac II, overthrew and blinded his brother | c. 1156 – 1211/1212 (aged approx. 58) Fled after brief resistance against the Fourth Crusade. Died a natural death after being captured and forced to become a monk by Theodore ILua error: not enough memory. |
| File:146 - Alexios IV Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios IV Angelos Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος |
19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Isaac II, overthrew Alexios III with the help of the crusaders as part of the Fourth Crusade, then named co-emperor alongside his blinded father | c. 1182/1183 – c. 8 February 1204 (aged approx. 21) Deposed and imprisoned by Alexios V, then strangled in prisonLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:144 - Isaac II Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Isaac II Angelos Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος (second reign) |
19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Freed from imprisonment during the Fourth Crusade by courtiers and reinstated as ruler after Alexios III abandoned the defense of Constantinople | c. 1156 – January 1204 (aged 47) Became senile or demented and died of natural causes shortly before Alexios V's coupLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:147 - Alexios V Doukas (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios V Doukas "Mourtzouphlos" Ἀλέξιος Δούκας |
27/28 January – 12 April 1204 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Seized power through a palace coup, son-in-law of Alexios III. | c. 1139 – c. late November 1204 (aged approx. 65) Fled during the sack of Constantinople. Blinded by Alexios III, later captured by crusader Thierry de Loos and thrown from the Column of TheodosiusLua error: not enough memory. |
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Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261)
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- Note: Roman rule in Constantinople was interrupted with the capture and sack of the city by the crusaders in 1204, which led to the establishment of the Frankokratia. Though the crusaders created a new line of Latin emperors in the city, modern historians recognize the line of emperors of the Laskaris dynasty, reigning in Nicaea, as the legitimate Roman emperors during this period because the Nicene Empire eventually retook Constantinople.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. For other lines of claimant emperors, see List of Trapezuntine emperors and List of Thessalonian emperors.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:148 - Theodore I Laskaris (Mutinensis - color).png | Theodore I Laskaris Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις |
c.Lua error: not enough memory. May 1205 – November 1221 (16 years and 6 months) with Nicholas Laskaris (1208–1210)[lower-alpha 18] |
Husband of Anna Komnene Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III. Organized resistance against the Latin Empire in Nicaea and proclaimed emperor in 1205 after the Battle of Adrianople; crowned by Patriarch Michael IV on 6 April 1208. | c. 1174 – November 1221 (aged approx. 47) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:149 - John III Doukas Vatatzes (Mutinensis - color).png | John III Vatatzes Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης |
c. December 1221 – 3 November 1254 (32 years and 11 months) |
Husband of Irene Laskarina, a daughter of Theodore I | c. 1192 – 3 November 1254 (aged approx. 62) Started Nicaean expansionism. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:150 - Theodore II Laskaris (Mutinensis - color).png | Theodore II Laskaris Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις |
3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of John III and grandson of Theodore I, co-emperor since about 1235 | November 1221 – 16 August 1258 (aged 36) Died of epilepsyLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:151 - John IV Laskaris (Mutinensis - color) (cropped).png | John IV Laskaris Ἰωάννης Δούκας Λάσκαρις |
16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son and co-emperor of Theodore II | 25 December 1250 – c. 1305 (aged approx. 55) Blinded, deposed and imprisoned by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261, died in captivity several decades laterLua error: not enough memory. |
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Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)
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| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | Life details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:152 - Michael VIII Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Michael VIII Palaiologos Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος |
1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259. Regained Constantinople on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John IV on 25 December | 1224/1225 – 11 December 1282 (aged 57/58) Died of dysenteryLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:153 - Andronikos II Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos II Palaiologos Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος |
11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Michael VIII; named co-emperor shortly after 1261, crowned on 8 November 1272 | 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332 (aged 72) Deposed by his grandson Andronikos III in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years laterLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:154 - Michael IX Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Michael IX Palaiologos (§) Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος |
21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281, crowned on 21 May 1294 | 17 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320 (aged 42/43) Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son, probably died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:155 - Andronikos III Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos III Palaiologos Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος |
24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313. Fought with his grandfather Andronikos II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II | 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341 (aged 44) Last Emperor to effectively control Greece. Died of sudden illness, possibly malariaLua error: not enough memory. |
| John V Palaiologos Ίωάννης Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος |
15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391 (Lua error: not enough memory.) Lua error: not enough memory. |
Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign | 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391 (aged 58) Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 33. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. | |
| File:156 - John VI Kantakouzenos (Mutinensis - color).png | John VI Kantakouzenos Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός |
8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354 (Lua error: not enough memory.) with Matthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357)[lower-alpha 18] |
Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after a lengthy civil war with John V's mother, Anna of Savoy. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347 | c.Lua error: not enough memory. 1295 – 15 June 1383 (aged approx. 88) Deposed by John V in another civil war and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades laterLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:158 - Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos IV Palaiologos Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος |
12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379 (Lua error: not enough memory.) May 1381 – June 1385 (4 years, in Selymbria) |
Son of John V and grandson of John VI; named co-emperor and heir in 1352, but imprisoned and partially blinded after a failed rebellion in May 1373. Rebelled again and successfully deposed his father in 1376; not formally crowned until 18 October 1377 | 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385 (aged 37) Deposed by John V in 1379; fled to Galata in exile but was restored as co-emperor and heir in May 1381, ruling over Selymbria and the coast of Marmara. Rebelled again in June 1385 but died shortly thereafterLua error: not enough memory. |
| File:159 - John VII Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | John VII Palaiologos Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος |
14 April – 17 September 1390 (Lua error: not enough memory.) late 1403 – 22 September 1408 (5 years, in Thessalonica) with Andronikos V Palaiologos (1403–1407)[lower-alpha 18] |
Son of Andronikos IV, co-emperor since 1377; usurped the throne from John V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but granted Thessalonica by Manuel II in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death | 1370 – 22 September 1408 (aged 38) Ruled Constantinople as regent in 1399–1403 during Manuel II's absence. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. |
| Manuel II Palaiologos Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος |
16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 25 September 1373 | 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425 (aged 74) Suffered a stroke in 1422, whereafter the government was run by his son, John VIII. Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. | |
| John VIII Palaiologos Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος |
21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Manuel II; co-emperor by 1407 and full emperor since 19 January 1421 | 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448 (aged 55) Died of natural causesLua error: not enough memory. | |
| File:162 - Constantine XI Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Constantine XI Palaiologos Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος |
6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453 (Lua error: not enough memory.) |
Son of Manuel II and favored successor of his brother John VIII. Crowned emperor in Mystras on 6 January 1449, entered Constantinople on 12 March. | 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453 (aged 48) The last Roman emperor. Died in battle at the fall of Constantinople.Lua error: not enough memory. |
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Other claims to the Roman imperial title
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| Subject | Description |
|---|---|
| Roman usurpers (list) | Roman usurpers were individuals or groups of individuals who obtained or tried to obtain power by force and without legitimate legal authority. Usurpation was endemic during the Roman imperial era, especially from the crisis of the third century onwards, when political instability became the rule.
A number of individuals proclaimed themselves emperor (or were proclaimed or appointed as emperor), but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues. |
| Byzantine usurpers (list) | |
| Holy Roman Emperors (list) | The Holy Roman Emperor was the ruler and head of state of the Holy Roman Empire.
Charlemagne was crowned imperator romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") by Pope Leo III in AD 800. In so doing, the Pope rejected the legitimacy of Empress Irene.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The Byzantines never recognized the Holy Roman emperors as "Roman emperors" and called them the 'emperor (or king) of the Franks', to them only the Byzantine Senate (successor to the Roman Senate) and/or the Byzantine military (successor to the Roman military) had the right to appoint a new Roman Emperor. Likewise, Western Europeans didn't recognize the legitimacy of the Byzantine emperors and called them the 'emperor of the Greeks' or the 'emperor of Constantinople'. See also: Problem of two emperors |
| Latin Emperors (list) | The Latin Emperor was the ruler of the Latin Empire, the historiographical convention for the Crusader realm, established in Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade (1204) and lasting until the city was recovered by the Byzantine Greeks in 1261. Its name derives from its Catholic and Western European ("Latin") nature. The empire, whose official name was Imperium Romaniae (Latin: "Empire of Romania"), claimed the direct heritage of the Eastern Roman Empire, which had most of its lands taken and partitioned by the crusaders. This claim however was disputed by the Byzantine Greek successor states, the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus. Out of these three, the Nicaeans succeeded in displacing the Latin emperors in 1261 and restored the Byzantine Empire. |
| Trapezuntine emperors (list) | The Trapezuntine emperors were the rulers of the Empire of Trebizond, one of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire founded after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, until its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1461. The rulers of Trebizond called themselves Megas Komnenos and – like their counterparts in the other two Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus – initially claimed supremacy as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans". However, after Michael VIII Palaiologos of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Komnenian use of the style "Emperor" became a sore point. In September 1282, at Constantinople, John II of Trebizond relinquished his claim and accepted the title despot. His successors used a variant of the imperial title, "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East, the Iberians, and the Transmarine Provinces" until the Empire's end in 1461.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. |
| Emperors of Thessalonica (list) | The emperors of Thessalonica were the rulers of the Empire of Thessalonica, a historiographic term to refer to the short-lived state centred on the city of Thessalonica between 1224 and 1246 (sensu stricto until 1242) and ruled by the Komnenodoukas of Epirus. |
| Despots of Epirus (list) | The despot of Epirus was the ruler of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states of the Byzantine Empire in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. The name "Despotate of Epirus" and the title "despot of Epirus" are modern historiographical names, and were not in use by the despots themselves.
Some rulers used the version "despot of Romania" (Romania essentially referring to the territories of the Roman Empire, i.e. Byzantium) or "despot of the Romans" (claiming rulership over the Romans, i.e. the Byzantines/Greeks). |
| Ottoman sultans (list) | Based on the concept of right of conquest, the sultans of the Ottoman Empire claimed to be the legitimate Roman Emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. This claim was recognized by the Islamic world, but was never recognized by the Western Europeans. See Ottoman claim to Roman succession |
See also
- List of Roman empresses – for a list of the consorts of the Roman emperors
- List of Roman consuls – for a list of the consuls who held power during the Roman Republic and who continued to be appointed in imperial times
- List of Roman dictators – for a list of dictators during the Roman Republic
- List of Roman dynasties – for a list of the many dynasties that ruled the Roman Empire
- Family tree of Roman emperors – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (27 BC–518 AD)
- Family tree of Byzantine emperors – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (337–1453)
Notes
- ↑ The term basileus eventually replaced augustus as the official title of the emperor, although both were seen as equals already by the times of Constantine I.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ The Byzantine Empire is universally recognized as the remnant, continuation or later stage of the Roman Empire. There is no universally agreed date used to separate the ancient Roman and "Byzantine" empires, with proposed dates ranging in age from 284 to 717.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Some authors reject the term "Byzantine" entirely.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Spain was lost in 625Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. and Africa in 698.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. A large portion of Italy was conquered by the Lombards already under Justinian I's successor, Justin II.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Rome and its surroundings remained under imperial control until 756, when they became the Papal States,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. though the last Italian holdouts were not lost until 1071 with the fall of Bari.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The seventh century also saw much of the empire's eastern and southern territories lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ There is no "official" count of Roman emperors given that different scholars sometimes include and omit different emperors (see Legitimacy). This list includes 170 emperors, 13 of whose legitimacy is disputed in scholarship (including the obscure figure of Silbannacus, whose existence and role are shrouded in mystery,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. and the four emperors of Nicaea, who are often seen as the "legitimate" emperors during the interregnum of 1204–1261),Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. and 5 ruling empresses, 2 of which have variable ascribed status (these being Saint Theodora and Eudokia Makrembolitissa, who were rulers in their own right but are still absent in most lists of rulersLua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. or just labeled as regents),Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. for a total of 175 monarchs. Also included are 34 junior co-emperors, 3 of whose legitimacy is debated, and 1 junior co-empress (Thekla). All in all, this list thus includes a total of 210 occupants of the Roman imperial office.
- ↑ This was one of the titles used for the emperors in Constantinople by Ottoman writers prior to 1453.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Entries also include the regnal name of each emperor. These generally differed from their original birth name, often adopting elements from the previous emperor.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Augustus's full name would be "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus" according to Roman naming conventions, but he styled himself as "Imperator Caesar Augustus", treating "Caesar" as a family name.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Given that "Imperator" was only a victory title, it will be omitted from the emperors' full nomenclature.
- ↑ The conventional date for the Empire's founding is 27 BC,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. when the Senate awarded Octavian the title and name Augustus alongside one of several grants of power.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Ancient writers, however, give him a rule of 56 years.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. He became de facto sovereign in 31 BC, after defeating his last remaining opposition at the Battle of Actium.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. This is a date also used by some writers.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Augustus himself dated his accession to legal power to 7 January 43 BC, when he first received Lua error: not enough memory..Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Later that year he became consul (19 August) and then triumvir (27 November) alongside Mark Antony and Lepidus. Augustus thus ruled the Roman state for exactly 56 years, but only 40 as "emperor".Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ By this time, 'Caesar' and 'Augustus' are regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles, with the former denoting the heir-apparent and the latter indicating the emperor himself.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 The junior co-emperors marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures, mostly children, who are usually not counted as "true" emperors given their submissive status to the senior emperor, but are still present in some lists of rulers.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Unless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ On account of the limited surviving source material, the dates used here for the Year of the Six Emperors (238) are approximate and only one of several estimates.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. The chronology of the whole period is dubious and sources rarely agree on each other; many emperors started their reign as rivals.
- ↑ Unmentioned in literary sources and known only from two coins seemingly issued in Rome, implying he was proclaimed emperor in the capital, probably between Aemilianus and Valerian, or against either.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Made caesar by his father and only referred to as augustus in a single series of coins, issued while he was besieged in Cologne in 260. Coinage issued after his death honor him as caesar; probably because Gallienus did not want to advertise the death of a second emperor in one year.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Legitimately appointed as co-emperor by Licinius, though as western emperor (in opposition to Constantine I). Referred as caesar in literary sources, but called augustus in coinage. Did not actually rule anything given that Licinius did not control the west.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Although technically recognized by Constantius II, who even sent him the imperial diadem, Vetranio is often regarded as a usurper.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.
- ↑ Distinction between nomen, praenomen and cognomen, the core elements of Roman naming conventions, began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is, barbarians turned citizens— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the names Julius, Flavius (notable the Constantinians) and Marcus Aurelius (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete as surnames. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 18.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 18.14 18.15 18.16 18.17 18.18 18.19 18.20 Although they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Heraclius Constantine is often enumerated as 'Constantine III',Lua error: not enough memory. though this name is also often applied to the earlier western emperor and has also been used used for Heraclius Constantine's son Constans II (who actually ruled under the name 'Constantine', 'Constans' being a nickname).Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 The empresses marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures who were undisputed as legitimate heads of the imperial government and who are sometimes (including by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium),Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory. though not always, seen as having been empresses regnant.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Emperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. The sole exception after Constantine IX's reign is Michael VI, whose family name (Bringas) was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families and thus does not appear in official use.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Unattested in coinage; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he was born in the purple and that he also used the "imperial tokens".Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
- ↑ Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.Lua error: not enough memory.Lua error: not enough memory.
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References
Citations
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Main bibliography
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Secondary bibliography
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External links
- <cite class="citation wikicite" id=Lua error: not enough memory.>"List of Roman emperors". Encyclopædia Britannica
- <cite class="citation wikicite" id=Lua error: not enough memory.>"List of Roman emperors". Livius.org
- <cite class="citation wikicite" id=Lua error: not enough memory.>"List of Rulers of the Roman Empire". Metropolitan Museum of Art
- "The Rulers of the Roman Empire". De Imperatoribus Romanis
- Chronology of Roman emperors by Ian Mladjov
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