A Handbook for the Suppression of Communist Guerrilla/Terrorist Operations (Chapter III)
| Author | Department of the Army |
|---|---|
| Country | United States of America |
| Subject | Counterinsurgency |
Publication date | 1961 |
| Text | A Handbook for the Suppression of Communist Guerrilla/Terrorist Operations online |
| Digital Identifier (JFK Library): JFKPOF-080-014 | |
| Part of a series on |
| Counterinsurgency |
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THE ENEMY, HIS ORGANIZATION AND OPERATION
a. An understanding of some of the essential elements of communism and an appreciation of its true aims and impact on society is basic to the problem.
(1) Communism is not only a political philosophy but a way of life encompassing all aspects of human society. It must be recognized as a dynamic force capable of claiming the fanatic allegiance of intelligent individuals regardless of nationality, race or religion.
(2) The international character and appeal of communism is amply demonstrated by operationally effective communist parties with a disciplined following in every country of the globe conducting both overt and clandestine business in the interest of communist world revolution.
(3) In its 42 years of history the communist party has survived numerous and vigorous repressions and defeats. Its survival and subsequent successes are attributable to its monolithic character, iron discipline, dedication, flexibility, imagination and the ability to learn by their mistakes.
(4) The communists constantly improve their strain by purge and reorganization eliminating the unsuitable, unreliable and vacillating personnel from the party. The successful communist, propaganda to the contrary, is an intelligent and extremely capable individual. In common with all movements and organizations in the history, the Reds have their quota of "party hacks", however, for purposes of practical consideration they can be eliminated from the operations under consideration.
(5) The basic commandment governing the conduct of communist operations remains that "the means justify the end."
b. Red Command and Control:
(1) Command and control of all operations in Revolutionary Warfare is directed from the central communist party apparat (The Central) in Moscow or Peiping. An intermediate area central located in a red or neutral country near the border of the]target area is sometimes utilized. Major plans, direction and overall objectives are received from the "Central". Wide latitude and decentralization of authority is the norm within the operational area.
(2) An understanding of the true rank and command structure in communist operations is desirable. True rank is based on the individual's position in the control apparat, not on the position occupied in a communist government or the military rank held.
(3) The following chart indicates a type party control apparat within an indigenous communist party for the conduct of guerrilla/terrorist operations.
c. Description of activities of principal categories of party personnel follows:
(1) Activists: Carefully selected indigenous personnel with long experience in the communist party and conspiratorial life who have demonstrated outstanding leadership and organizational ability. These personnel are educated, schooled and frequently have resided within the Soviet Union or Communist China for extended periods. Personnel serve lengthy apprenticeships in a wide variety of tasks abroad in other areas including espionage, party organization, labor union activities, guerrilla and terrorist operations. The majority hold military rank of general in the Red Army of the USSR or Communist China and possess Soviet or Chinese citizenship. Generally one to three activists are assigned to a target area. Major division of responsibilities among activists are generally regional with one designated as the overall commander.
(2) Organizers: Selected indigenous personnel of wide experience in the communist party. Many have received special schooling in the USSR or China. Generally several organizers will be assigned to each activist. Primary responsibility is assigned to each organizer for a major field of activity such as industrial workers, peasantry, students, military police and civil service. The organizer's mission is to recruit, organize and train communist party cells and cadres in the assigned area of activity to carry out operational missions of the revolution. Organizers are often candidate activists.
(3) Specialists (Technos): May be indigenous or non-indigenous to the area of operations. Generally of long experience in communist patty activity, they are imported as required for specific technical tasks such as communication, interrogations, counter-intelligence, military organizations, tactics, guerrilla warfare, assassinations and kidnapping of important personages, party purges and other specialized activities. Specialists are often responsible for the conduct of schooling and training cadres as well as performance of operational tasks.
(4) Cadres: Specially selected indigenous communists, trained generally in the area of operations for the assumption of command and as deputies and subordinate leaders, under the activists and organizers and perform liaison activities They serve as deputies and subordinate leaders, under the activists and organizers and perform liaison activities.
(5) Agents: Specially selected and trained indigenous communists targeted for penetration of key government and civil institutions to carry out intelligence and subversion missions; agents generally work under the supervision of organizers and activists
(6) Party Members: The rank and file constitute selected indigenous personnel who have demonstrated ability in their individual fields of endeavor. Party members are generally organized in cells of five persons responsible to a cell leader. Individual members of the cell are usually unaware of the composition and membership of other cells. Operations and liaison are generally carried out through a series of personal cutouts. Every attempt is made by the coicsiunists to limit party membership to a hard core minority.
(7) Supporters and Fellow Travelers: Constitute that element of the indigenous population who are non-party members actively engaged in the support of the communist party. Included in this group are generally the majority of the people supporting the Red cause. Less than 3% of a given population could be expected to constitute the communist party membership. Another 7% could be expected to constitute the support element.
(8) Apparent inconsistencies in relative and real rank and positions in the revolutionary movement in reality provide a modicum of flexibility and a considerable degree of security control considering the nature of the operations. The guerrilla battalion commander may be a party member but he takes party direction and such other orders as necessary from his deputy or intelligence officer when the situation requires. The military subordinate is a party organizer or cadre whose primary activities are non-military but who is readily available to advise or control the military where necessary in the party's interest. The military chief functions as the field leader carrying out his normal military tasks with a minimum of guidance from his party superior (commissar) except in matters effecting party doctrine and policy.
d. Organization of a typical indigenous communist party is indicated as follows:
(1) Central Committee: The Central Committee is composed of 10-15 top-ranking communist executives (activists and organizers) under the direction of the Secretary General (chief activist). The committee rarely assembles and the actual policy direction emanates from the Polit-bureau consisting of 3-4 members (the activists) including the Secretary General. The Secretary General may issue directives as appropriate in the name of the Polit-bureau or Central Committee based on previous policy decisions.
(2) The Military High Command: (See chart page 12)
(3) The Regional Bureaus: Directives and decisions by the Central Committee are passed to the Regional Bureaus for transmission and application as appropriate to the Provincial Committees. The Regional Bureau is controlled by an activist, assisted by other party personnel. Generally limited to a total of 5-7 personnel.
(4) Provincial Committee: Performs essentially the same command and communication function at the state level. In some instances the provincial committees are only formed in the movement's advanced state of development or as otherwise required. Control is generally exercised by an organizer. In size its personnel seldom exceeds five.
(5) District Committee: Each provincial committee has under its control a number of district committees (4-7) according to geography of the area concerned. The District Committee is generally controlled by an organizer in the position of Party Secretary. When the Provincial Committee is not formed the District Committee functions under the direct control of the Regional Bureau. The District Committee is the main functional level of the communist party. It formulates and implements plans and policy at the operational level in conformance with party directives and directs combat operations. This committee constitutes the nerve center and command post of the revolutionary warfare field elements. Size usually approximates 5-10 personnel.
(6) Branch Committees: The Branch Committees work under the direction of the District Committees —each district averaging 4 branch committees. Branch committees consist of 3-5 individuals. The Branch Committee controls both the civilian support organizations and the local guerrilla companies and separate platoons. The Branch Committee is generally controlled by a cadreman. The Branch Committee is the highest level at which non-party members may normally be encountered.
(7) Civilian Support Organizations: The bulk of the communist numerical strength lies in these organizations. A wide variety of support elements are incorporated at this level. The majority are constituted from non-party personnel although some may be candidates or on a probationary status. The majority are members of front organizations, communist youth groups or just citizens partial to the red cause. Party members of local cells fill key positions and ramrod the operations. Home guards, couriers, liaison, intelligence, propaganda, supply, recruiting, communication elements all constitute the support organization sometimes called the Armed work forces. Members wear no identifying uniforms and normally function under the cover of legitimate occupations and maintain, as far as possible, a clandestine cover for their operations except when attached directly to guerrilla/terrorist military units. Members are armed when the job requires. The presence of women in all positions in the red organization is normal, The support organizations are the main physical link between the guerrilla/terrorist military organizations and the communist high command.
e. Organization of the Militant Arm of Revolutionary Warfare: Principal elements of the communist armed forces in the areas under consideration are: Armed bands, flying columns and home guards.
(1) Armed guerrilla/terrorist band-type units varying in size are organized in platoons and companies based in the hills, jungle or forests of the area. These, units are recruited primarily from the locale of operations and serve as full time regular soldiers. Personnel generally constitute a relatively high ratio of party members to non-party personnel. These units normally conduct operations within given geographical area,? from which they are controlled by the Branch Committees. Units normally arm, equip and clothe themselves by the conduct of raids and subsequent to initial arming require little outside ordnance support. Subsistence and medical support is- provided primarily by the support organizations. Units conduct training, establish supply caches, and maintain surveillance, reconnaissance and security guard activities normal to small units when not engaged in active operations. Operations are generally planned in advance and receive the approval of the committee. Communications with armed hands are normally maintained via couriers, letter drops, or designated point of contact personnel resident in the locale. Radio and telephones are seldom available to units at this level. Several units are frequently assembled temporarily for the conduct of larger operations in adjacent areas and then return to their normal locale. Personnel generally recieve no regular pay but on occasion receive cash grants or other gifts. Families of guerrillas are supported as necessary by the local party organizations, The individual's term of service is for the length of hostilities or when released. Discipline is severe and the unit commander has the power of life or death over his personnel. Disobedience of orders, theft, desertion, leaving a wounded comrade, looting, rape, or the killing of civilians without orders, are all usually punished by a summary court on the spot and an arbitrary death sentence. Leaves and visits to family or friends are strictly controlled. Field medical care is generally very primitive or restricted to first aid. Living conditions are harsh and food supplies and shelter are generally marginal. Troops are generally armed with a variety of relatively modern weapons with a high preponderance of sub-machine guns, shotguns and carbines. Lack of standardization is normal. Automatic rifles of the Bren and BAR types are popular and widely used for fire support. Conventional bolt action rifles are substituted when more desirable arms cannot be obtained./ Pistols, knives and grenades are carried when available, by all ranks. Light machine guns are generally used only by company sized or larger formations. Grenade launchers, mortars of the 60mm, Minewerfer and knee mortar type are widely used. Heavier mortars are usually found only in larger guerrilla formations. Ammunition is generally in short supply and is carefully conserved. Troops are sometimes uniformed in partial military attire, with red star arm bands, cap insignia, etc. The use of captured government uniforms of both military and police to assist in deception and surprise is a common practice.
(2) Mobile Columns: (Flying Columns). Larger guerrilla formations similar to the Armed Bands (Pit and Cos) above; organized in battalions, regiments, or brigades (200-500) are established and maintained under the control of District or Provincial Committees when possible. Units are not based on any specific locality but operate over wide areas. When not engaged in active operations units are subdivided for billeting in several districts. Radio and telephonic communications are sometimes utilized by these units. Heavy mortars and standard types of light machine guns are generally encountered in these units. Staff organization and training is generally good. Staffs seldom exceed three (3) individuals and generally include a Political Commissar, Operations and Intelligence Officer and an Intelligence Officer. Liaison personnel from higher and lower echelons are assigned when necessary but are not considered to be a part of the staff.
(3) Home Guards:
(a) In each area where communist operations are conducted attempts are made to organize Home Guard units.
(b) Organized in sections they vary widely in size according to the locality (average 10-30 personnel).
(c) Based on villages, towns or settlements they constitute a "Red Militia" available for part-time military activities or operations of short duration.
(d) Generally employed as scouts, security screening and lookouts for raiding bands operating in their areas, they sometimes perform small scale raids and armed robberies in adjacent communities to requisition supplies, divert attention from other operations and apply pressure to local inhabitants.
(e) These forces are generally only partially equipped with firearms.
(f) The Home Guards operate under the control of the Branch Committee unless attached to guerrilla units for specific operations and are classified as a support organization.
f. Tactics:
(1) The objective of communists is the seizure of power achieved by:
(a) Gaining the active support of a minority of the population while concurrently securing the passive neutrality of the mass of the population.
(b) Destruction of the government and its institutions by denying it the support of the populace and concurrently defeating and destroying its punitive arms and control system by a combination of terrorism, subversion and military force.
(c) Achieving the de-facto control of the country by forcing the government to disperse its forces and assume the defensive retaining only the cities and major towns under its control and those locales physically occupied by its field forces.
(2) Phasing of operations: The major phasing periods of operations are:
(a) Conspiratory Phase: Initiated by activation of red party apparat within target country, includes all basic preparatory actions prior to the overt bid for power. Extends from an indefinite period until the internal and international situation indicates a favorable "D" Day.
(b) Initiation Phase: Usually a relatively short period of time during which the Red's surface portions of their forces in the form of strikes, "peace drives," "popular fronts", "election activity," heavy propaganda outputs, student demonstrations and "Freedom Movements." Generally coupled with outbreaks of violence and provocation of punitive action by police against mobs, strikes, etc. Often is coupled to coincide with the actions of legitimate national freedom movements and revolts against tyrannical or unpopular governments. If this phase proves to be premature or abortive, the reds retire to the conspirational phase and await another opportunity.
(c) Revolutionary Phase: Incorporates the entire period from the formalization of overt hostilities until the reds have secured power. Generally this phase can be subdivided into two subordinate periods:
(1) Period of Revolt: Extending from the initiation of the uprising to the defeat of the government initially in power.
(2) Defeat of the Counter-Revolutionaries: Covers the period from the overthrow of the initial government through any coalition and interim national governments until the reds have secured the sole occupancy of the driver's seat in the political arena and exercise major punitive authority. . This phase includes the period of suppression of any armed remnants of the previous regime or other non-communist elements resisting the "people's will."
(d) Consolidation Phase: Elimination of the existing political and social structures and the substitution of communist institutions and the "classless society." These actions are initiated concurrently with other phases and culminate in the destruction of the former socioeconomic structure.
(3) Tactical Scenarios: The following schematic listing of communist activities and resultant conditions cover developments to be expected in the areas indicated within the target country. Volume of the activity and incident rates will be dictated by the capability of the reds to implement the action coupled with the tempo and time phasing called for in their campaign. In the majority of historical cases these problems appear first in traditionally "unsettled" areas coupled with a rash of incidents in the larger urban areas and progress rapidly to cover other portions of the country. The general application and continuation of the activities listed on a wholesale scale will without immediate resourceful positive counteraction by the government result in the fall of the regime in power.
(a) Urban, industrial and commercial population center activity:
1. Paralyzation of industry and commerce through strikes, slowdowns and sabotage.
2. Disruption of public and commercial transportation and communications by strikes, sabotage, raids, terror bombings and fear campaigns spread by rumor.
3. Special terrorist activities directed at:
a. Selected government, military and police officials at all echelons and their families and relatives. Includes representatives of the press and radio and influential citizens not in public life. Incorporates threats of violence and death unless the subject "comes to terms" or leaves the country. Implementation is carried. out by beatings, kidnapping, assassination, mutilation, arson and bombing against the person or property of the subject or members of his family.
b. Military, police and government stations, garrisons, and patrols. Developed in the form of ambushes, bombing, raids, sabotage and general harassing tactics and attacks.
c. Similar attacks to b above on public press and radio facilities coupled with technical interference in curtailing supply and newsprint, radio jamming, and sabotage of mechanical facilities.
d. Bombing and arson attacks on government buildings banks, leading commercial firms and the public mails.
4. General Terror Campaign: Includes arson, bombings, machine gunning in public places, such as bars, night clubs, theaters, bus and railroad terminals. Sometimes accompanied by spasmodic roof-top sniping incidents.
5. Rumor and Propaganda Campaigns: Widespread rumor campaigns embodying derogatory and disruptive themes to public morale such as the flight of the government, its imminent collapse, red victories, graft and corruption, character assassination, murder of innocent people by the police, shortages of food, devaluation of the currency, cancellation of government bonds and reputed defection abroad of key government and banking officials with national funds are integral parts of the Red psychological effort.
6. Provocateur Incidents: Utilizing police or military uniforms and vehicles red action groups of terrorists carry out a systematic campaign of terror to discredit the government and arouse public indignation by the beating, kidnapping and assassination of left wing or other government opposition groups. In some cases publicly known or suspected communists who are expendable are "Martyrized for the cause" by the reds in this fashion to offer credence to the incidents.
(b) Rural areas activities, including those conducted in small villages, towns and hamlets are generally as follows:
1. Destruction of the government's authority by the assassination, forced evacuation or intimidation and "pacification" of the rural and village government officials, police, merchant class and land owners.
2. Severance and/or control of communications facilities with the urban and regional centers of commerce by sabotage of telegraph and telephone systems, disruption of rail and road traffic by ambushes, sabotage, and temporarily established Red Army check points on roads where travelers and cargo are checked and/or diverted from their destination.
3. Temporary seizure of rural villages and seats of commerce by guerrilla units is usually accompanied by the following: The population is assembled and Red proclamations are read announcing the new order. Searches for arms and "government agents" are conducted, public trials are held, the "culprits" executed, taxes in the form of goods and money are collected from the well-to-do. Hostages are sometimes taken from ranks of remaining government supporters and the population is warned that the Red Army is coming or will return and the meanwhile they will be under the scrutiny of the "agent of the people" and will be expected to support the new "People's Government." Reprisals for assistance to the government or lack of cooperation are promised. Land and goods of "government lackeys" executed are often distributed to the population, assisting in the "incrimination" of the populace as a whole as accomplices to the actions of the Reds. The red bands then depart with the promise (threat) of return. Small red elements of the band are sometimes left to continue organization if the circumstances permit. In general the actions of these red bands are scrupulously correct toward the population as a whole. The Reds make every effort to impress the population with the conduct of their troops and their roles as fair but stern dispensers dispensers of the "people's will". Recruiting of volunteers is also conducted during these operations, Goods and services taken from other than government supporters are paid for. Women and religious personages are not molested. The soldiery circulate with the population passing out small gifts and propaganda tracts, and participate in communal activities. Red military units frequently arrive to assist the peasantry in planting, harvesting, threshing and other activities.
4. Revenues in the form of taxes, goods and cattle flowing to the city are diverted and disrupted whenever possible. Government and private stores, graininess, plantations and processing activities are sabotaged by burning, spoilage and theft. Grain and supplies are often distributed to the local population, providing good will and the ready availability of supply caches for subsequent operations.
5. The following operations described above under urban and industrial areas are also conducted in the rural areas as locally necessary and feasible; a. Special terrorist operations against government. supporters and their families:
b. Propaganda and rumor campaigns.
c. Provocateur incidents.
(c) Activities in sparsely populated areas (jungle, mountain, forest, swamp, etc.) Parallel those of the rural areas with the emphasis on the following:
1. Early achievement of complete physical domination of the area.
2. Garrisoning of relatively large guerrilla formations of the Mobile or Flying Column Type.
3. Establishment of guerrilla training centers, extensive supply caches, hospitals, rest centers, and small arms and munitions, manufacturing and repair facilities.
4. Extensive use of the population (particular primitive groups) as guides, porters, lookouts, and general labor force.
5. Establishment of volume trans-border smuggling operations in arms, supplies and personnel where such sparsely populated areas are located near the national boundaries of the target area.
(d) Activities within the government, military and police establishments and public information media are carried out by the agents and cells established by the communist party during the conspiratorial phase. Often under deep cover these personnel are assisted and abetted by other personnel recruited by blackmail, graft, anti-regime beliefs and disaffection for personal causes. The insertion or promotion of these personnel into key jobs is held to be an objective of high priority by the Red High Command (Central Committee). Their operations cover a wide area of activities including but not limited to the following:
1. Formulation and implementation of ineffective or erroneous policy.
2. Provision of intelligence for the benefit of all phases of operations.
3. Spreading of rumors, disaffection and loss of morale in all government elements. Incitation of mutiny of military and police units and their defection to the communists.
4. Issuance of false, misleading, delayed and misdirected orders, reports and directives.
5. Sabotage of communications.
6. Earmarking of capable government personnel for the special attention of terrorists.
7. Incitation of provocateur actions damaging to the government's positions through official channels.
8. Maneuvering communist personnel or sympathizers in office into key positions where government operations may be hamstrung and open collaboration and assistance afforded to the guerrilla units in the field or the subversive apparatus.
9. Destruction or loss of files and intelligence reports on Red operations and personnel.
10. Delay or misdirection in shipment of supplies, reinforcements, pay, etc. to government forces. "Official or bureaucratic sabotage."